How California's $2 billion strawberry industry is trapped in a collective action problem that pits individual survival against collective benefit
Imagine a farmer who must choose between arming their crops with protective armor or powerful weapons, knowing they cannot carry both. This is the exact dilemma facing California's $2 billion strawberry industry, which supplies 90% of America's strawberries 1 .
"If I need to put more armor on, I can't carry more guns" 6 .
For decades, growers have relied on chemical fumigants to control soil diseases, but with increasing regulations and emerging pathogens, the industry faces an urgent need to adopt more sustainable methods like disease-resistant cultivars 1 .
The paradox is this: while most growers recognize that collectively prioritizing disease resistance over yield would benefit everyone long-term, individually they feel compelled to choose high-yielding varieties to remain competitive. This "collective action problem" in agriculture pits individual survival against group benefit, creating a trap where the rational choice for each farmer leads to worse outcomes for all 6 .
California produces 90% of U.S. strawberries with a market value of $2 billion annually 1 .
Individual rationality (maximize yield) conflicts with collective benefit (sustainable practices).
The roots of this dilemma trace back to the 1950s, when California strawberry growers began using a combination of methyl bromide and chloropicrin to control soil diseases 1 . This chemical solution proved so effective that it enabled unprecedented industry growth—but at a cost. The entire agricultural system gradually became "locked-in" to this fumigation-dependent model 1 .
Introduction of methyl bromide and chloropicrin fumigation enables massive expansion of strawberry production.
Entire infrastructure, knowledge systems, and market expectations evolve around fumigation-dependent practices.
Methyl bromide banned under Montreal Protocol due to ozone-depleting properties.
Novel soil pathogens emerge and other fumigants face stricter regulations, trapping the industry.
This lock-in phenomenon represents a classic case of technological path dependency in agriculture. As more growers adopted fumigation, supporting infrastructure, knowledge systems, and market expectations evolved around this method, making alternatives increasingly difficult to develop and implement 1 .
The situation worsened with the appearance of novel soil pathogens like Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium oxysporum, which began regularly appearing in growers' fields 1 . The very system designed to ensure stability now threatens collapse.
To understand why growers hesitate to adopt disease-resistant varieties, researchers from the University of California, Santa Cruz conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with strawberry growers 1 6 . Unlike large-scale surveys, this approach allowed researchers to explore the complex socioeconomic factors influencing decision-making.
Researchers identified commercial strawberry growers across five major production regions in California, focusing on operations where strawberries were a primary crop 1 .
Using semi-structured interviews, researchers conducted 20 interviews in 2018-2019, followed by 5 additional interviews in 2021 1 .
Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis, identifying recurring patterns and concerns across different types and sizes of farming operations 1 .
The findings revealed that while growers operate under significant constraints—including rising land costs, labor shortages, and pressure from market intermediaries—their continued prioritization of high-yielding varieties works "at cross purposes to the problem of poor prices" 1 .
The interview data revealed several interconnected factors that maintain the status quo, despite widespread recognition of its limitations.
Need for high-yielding varieties to offset costs
Contracts with shippers prioritizing volume
Continued reliance on chemical solutions
Growers consistently reported needing high-yielding varieties to offset their substantial operating costs, which exceed $68,000 per acre for conventional strawberries 1 . With such high investments, choosing anything but the most productive varieties seems economically reckless on an individual farm level.
| Cost Factor | Conventional (per acre) | Organic (per acre) |
|---|---|---|
| Total Operating Costs | $68,000+ | $70,000+ |
| Primary Cost Drivers | Land, labor, fertilizers, fumigants | Land, labor, organic inputs |
| Land Access Challenge | High coastal land values pressure maximum yield | Same pressure with higher input costs |
This strawberry dilemma represents what economists call a collective action problem—a situation where individuals would benefit from cooperation but cannot achieve it because individual interests discourage joint action 2 7 . In the case of strawberries, if all growers adopted disease-resistant varieties, the reduced disease pressure and potentially higher prices would benefit everyone. But without assurance that others will follow, individual growers risk being stuck with lower yields and potentially going out of business 6 .
| Problem Type | Definition | Strawberry Example |
|---|---|---|
| Public Good Provision | Decision to participate in collective conservation | Adopting disease-resistant varieties for industry sustainability |
| Coordinated Implementation | Decision to implement measures in synchronized fashion | Multiple growers simultaneously switching to resistant cultivars |
| Externality Internalization | Addressing effects that participants create on neighbors | Accounting for how one grower's practices affect regional disease pressure |
The interviews revealed that buyer-grower contractual relationships, conditions of land access, and labor remuneration practices further reinforce the focus on yield 6 . Many growers operate within tight margins dictated by contracts with large shippers and retailers who prioritize consistent volume 1 .
Escaping this trap requires addressing the structural forces that make high yields essential for individual growers.
Research suggests that supporting grower revenues through mechanisms that reduce the financial risk of adopting alternative methods could help break the cycle 1 .
University breeding programs, which have historically emphasized productivity, could consciously shift toward developing varieties that balance yield with other qualities 6 .
As one study concluded, "university breeders are best positioned to level the playing field by ceasing to breed for productivity" as the primary goal 6 .
Voluntary coordination programs, similar to those used in pest management, could help align individual and collective interests 7 .
The coordination frontier approach developed by Lence and Singerman provides a practical method for evaluating the likelihood of success in voluntary coordination programs and determining the economic incentives needed to facilitate cooperation 7 .
| Challenge Category | How It Manifests | Impact on Cultivar Choice |
|---|---|---|
| Land Access & Cost | High coastal land values | Pressure for maximum yield per acre |
| Labor Availability | Shortages & rising costs | Need for varieties with concentrated harvest periods |
| Market Intermediaries | Price pressure from shippers | Preference for high-volume varieties |
| Environmental Regulations | Fumigant restrictions | Theoretical interest in alternatives, but limited adoption |
For researchers studying collective action problems in agriculture, several methodological approaches and tools are essential:
Both probability and non-probability sampling methods can be employed, with purposive sampling particularly useful for reaching hard-to-access populations like commercial growers 5 .
The California strawberry industry's predicament illustrates a fundamental challenge in modern agriculture: how to transition from productive but unsustainable practices to more sustainable alternatives when the entire system is structured around the status quo. As researcher Julie Guthman found, growers operate within significant socioeconomic constraints that make individual deviation risky 1 6 .
Solving this collective action problem requires recognizing that the issue isn't simply stubborn farmers refusing to change, but a systemic failure to align individual and collective interests. With targeted policies, reimagined breeding programs, and strategic collective action, it may be possible to escape the productivity trap—creating a future where farmers can carry both armor and guns, protecting both their crops and their livelihoods.
The author is a science writer specializing in agricultural sustainability and food systems.